This study examined factors affecting literacy in rural primary schools in Serenje District, Zambia, where outcomes remain very low despite policy efforts. Using a mixed-methods approach with learners, teachers, and headteachers across 12 schools, the study found that 67% of Grade 5 learners read at frustration level, with low reading speed and comprehension. Contributing factors included limited home literacy support, poor attendance, low parental involvement, child labour, and lack of reading materials. School challenges involved overcrowded classrooms, insufficient resources, weak teacher preparation, and high staff turnover. Language barriers also hindered learning, as the official language of instruction differed from the community language. The study concludes that literacy challenges are multi-layered and require coordinated interventions, including improved teacher training, resource provision, language policy review, and stronger parental engagement.